An evaluation of a European teacher exchange programme

Article Outline

• Summary
• Introduction and background
  • Research design
  • Sample
    • Inclusion/exclusion criteria
  • Data collection methods
  • Ethical considerations
  • Data analysis
  • Rigour and reflexivity
  • Findings
• Discussion
  • Value
  • Role identity
    • Professional role identity
    • Role identity and professional development
  • Role identity and personal development
    • Role identity and internationalisation
  • Conclusion and recommendations
• Acknowledgements
• References
• Copyright

Summary 

This longitudinal study evaluated a European teacher exchange programme within a UK School of Nursing and Midwifery. A cross case study design was employed over a three year period. A range of data methods were used which gave a clear, detailed and rich picture of the exchange experience. Overall analysis of the data generated two key themes, namely that of value and role identity. The study highlighted factors which were deemed to have positive and negative influences on the teacher exchange experience. It is concluded that a teacher exchange programme is of value to the School, by aiding personal and professional development and internationalisation. Recommendations from the study are included in the paper.

Keywords: Nursing curriculum, Teacher exchange, Internationalisation

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Introduction and background 

This paper outlines a three year longitudinal study into a European teacher exchange programme in a UK school of nursing and midwifery. The study highlighted that a teacher exchange raises complex notions of value and role identity, which were identified as key themes of the research. It was found that the teacher's expertise and the exchange itself need to be valued by both the home and host school, and that the professional and personal development that resulted from the activity was influenced by a number of antecedent factors.

The School of Nursing and Midwifery has a history of running a teacher exchange programme with its partner institutions in Europe, going back over 10years. Approximately 6–8 exchanges had been undertaken each year using Erasmus European funding. To date student exchanges have been well researched (e.g. Ketefian and Redman, 1997, Scholes and Moore, 2000, Lee, 2004), but there has been little evaluation of the long term impact and value of teacher exchanges. This study aimed to capture both the positive and negative influences of teacher exchange in order to develop this aspect of internationalisation of the curriculum. Internationalisation in higher education has been defined as the process by which an international dimension to teaching, research and practice are integrated into curricula (de Wit and Knight, 1999).

We have argued elsewhere (Law and Muir, 2006) that internationalisation of nurse and midwifery education is vital in today's increasingly globalised and multicultural society, if nurses and midwives are to develop into culturally competent practitioners (Campinha-Bacote, 1999). We have argued that internationalisation values difference and diversity and aims to learn and benefit from globalisation. Globalisation in itself can be criticised for focussing on standardising educational products, processes and systems, (Hinchcliff, 2000) without challenging inequalities.

It has been suggested that by internationalising the curriculum, students will be able to engage more meaningfully with other cultures and that cultural differences will be understood and respected (Shoorman, 2000, Hinchcliff, 2000). Grant and McKenna (2003) suggest that an internationalised curriculum encourages student nurses who are normally bound by strict curricula and practice to explore their worldview and expand their vision of nursing beyond the national view of their country of origin. Student exchanges are a fundamental aspect of this process (Haloburdo and Thompson, 1998, Watt et al., 2002) and form an important aspect of the school's international strategy. However, Watt et al. (2002) argue that there is a lack of available research to fully understand the complex realities of student exchange experiences and note that many authors argue for alternative ways to methods of internationalising the curriculum ‘without the need for difficult, costly and sometimes even damaging overseas placements’ for students . The schools international team felt that by increasing teacher exchange opportunities, greater internationalisation of the whole curriculum could be obtained, embedding an international view of health care into teaching, whilst guarding against what Culley (1996) calls ‘doses of other cultures’. In view of this aim, the literature and current debates cited above, this research was thought timely.

An initial focus group, comprising teaching staff who had previously undertaken teacher exchange activity either as part of a structured programme or as an ad hoc exchange, suggested that the exchanges were exhilarating, motivating and highly valued. The members of this focus group did not form part of the subsequent research sample. However, teachers also reported discomfort, role challenge and uncertainty before and during the exchange period. Many taken for granted assumptions about everyday performance as a teacher were lost, due to their visitor status during the exchange. The overall impact was a loss of confidence, heightened vigilance and anxiety over performance in the classroom and some teachers reported a feeling of being temporarily deskilled by the experience. This suggested that although temporary, teacher exchange is marked by considerable social and personal upheaval, it can be located as a role transition, whereby the individual is expected to change from one set of expected positional behaviours in a social system to another (Allen and van de Vliert, 1984).

Research design 

Individuals hold different perspectives of reality and this affects the constructions of their teacher exchange experiences; this is influenced by their life experiences, values and beliefs (Guba and Lincoln, 1989). The methodology employed had to capture the teachers' different behaviours that may occur in similar exchanges. Consequently, multiple case study design was chosen (as shown in Table 1) as this would capture individual variances or cases and consider them in context of the wider situation. (Yin, 1994, O'Leary, 2005). Table 1 shows the design used to structure the research, Yin (1994) identifies the importance of having such a structured approach to cross case study design.

Table 1. Design of research using a matrix structure recommended by Yin, 1994.

Moving from left to right on the table, the first stage (Define and Design) includes an initial focus group with faculty staff who had previously undertaken a teacher exchange. The findings from this focus group contributed to the data design and collection protocol. In order to gain a true representation of a range of experiences the design of the study was created as a 3year prospective study. Each year was treated as an individual case study with a report produced from the analysis of the participants' experiences in each year (data set).

Sample 

All lecturers within the School have the opportunity to undertake a teacher exchange as part of their academic development. The sample were qualified nurse and midwifery lecturers who self selected to participate in the exchange programme and equates to approximately 13% of the total population of staff.

In year 3 only one teacher exchange took place. As a result the research was modified to explore the Faculty view of the teacher exchange programme and what factors influenced their self selected participation in the programme. An ‘ e questionnaire’ was sent out to the Faculty to capture this information. This was designed to capture the academic staff perceptions of, and interest in, the teacher exchange programme. Each member of staff was sent the questionnaire via email and a response rate of 22.8% was achieved. For those that responded all were aware of the exchange programme and the majority view it positively.

Data collection methods 

A range of data sources were used to ensure the validity of the in-depth portrayals (self documentation and interviews). Data collections occurred at different phases within a longitudinal study and with separate data set analysis. Each contact with the participant was individually negotiated, but the following methods were used.

After each of the individual data sets had been analysed separately this contributed to a single case analysis (one year worth of data) to construct comparable accounts within the separate data sets. Each person was regarded as a data set and the years' worth of data was constructed to form one case study.

There were 3 researchers involved in interviewing and analysing the data, regular meetings occurred where clarification of understanding and process was ensured. The researchers undertook the role of a reflective facilitator during interviews to enable the participants to explore constructions of their experience and these individual constructions were crafted together into shared meanings and interpretations that represent the participant's views (Strauss and Corbin, 1990).

Ethical considerations 

Ethical approval was obtained from the University's ethics committee and confidentiality and data protection legislation was upheld. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants and consent was refreshed at each stage of the research process. The analysed data sets were returned to the participants for member checking and accuracy. Each individual annual case reports were also available for review.

Data analysis 

The data was analysed both from a linear perspective for each individual data set and then across each individuals data sets to form the final single case study report for year one. Transcripts from all stages were coded and thematised into clusters. Analysis started from the evaluation questions, and initial ideas were built upon from the impressionistic identified reflections of the researcher after each interview (Stake, 1995). As analysis of individual interview transcripts and field notes progressed, additional concepts were identified. Concepts were then amalgamated within each case and thematised and these themes set the structure for the idiographic account of the case. As these themes were drawn into single case report the potential for developing ‘chains of evidence’ became apparent (Yin, 1994). During years 2 and 3 these ‘chains of evidence’ were developed further and then cross case analysis occurred. Cross case analysis increase s generalisabilty and makes sense of a range of cases and thus enhances understanding and explanation of the data (Miles and Huberman, 1994).

Rigour and reflexivity 

This is acknowledged and mapped out below indicating what the strengths of the research were in terms of key concepts of rigour and the potential challenges to key concepts of rigour.

Findings 

Two key themes, which we call value and role identity, emerged from analysis of the data collected in the pre exchange interviews, the on-exchange e reflection, and the post exchange interviews. In year one, several concepts were identified from the data: value, role identity, personal and professional development and stressors and enablers. In year two, three new concepts of enjoyment, organisational values and internationalisation emerged. No new concepts were identified in year three. On further analysis, organisational values and enjoyment were subsumed into the key theme of value, and the concepts of personal and professional development and internationalisation were subsumed into the second key theme of role identity. The stressors and enablers identified impacted on both perceptions of value and role identity and were therefore subsumed in both key themes (Table 2).

Table 2. Thematic development.

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Discussion 

Value 

For the purposes of this study, value is defined as: experiencing positive regard, being seen as and feeling useful. The need for the teachers, their expertise and the exchange itself to be seen as valued by both the home and host school was vital if the exchange was to be deemed a success. Changes in the values of the organisation in which the teacher exchange programme was positioned were found to be influential.

When teachers felt valued by the host school, they deemed the exchange a success and when value was not felt, the experience was poorly evaluated.

‘I wasn't sure how much value they would place on the visit,...... I anticipated that there might be perhaps disinterest because my background is in midwifery, but that was far from the reality of it.’ P1

‘I was going out to shared my experiences of work based learning’ [this was rejected by the hosts] ‘I felt incredibly crest-fallen at that point’ P5

Concern that the exchange activity was not viewed as real work and therefore not valued by the home school was identified in the data. This may explain why teachers felt that they had to add value themselves by continuing with ‘home work’ and link activities to home institution goals.

‘We had dissertations and research marking to do (laughing)’ P2

‘I was particularly interested in the paramedic, emergency medicine part of the curriculum in view of us trying to set up a course here….’ P 12

The researchers were aware, that within the Schools ‘organisational memory’ (Levitt and March, 1996), international activity had previously been viewed as elitist. Although traces of this were indentified in the e questionnaire sent to all school staff (mentioned by 1 respondent) a cultural shift was demonstrated by this activity being more positively valued across the school. The previously pejorative term ‘school travel club’ was now conceptualised as valid club to join; participants felt proud that they had engaged in such activity.

‘I've now joined a club of people who have done this… (its) seen positively by the organisation that I have done this’ P 8

However this organisational shift was not so great as to view such exchange work as core to their work. Teachers felt they quickly had to return to their ‘real work’. The emphasis on keeping in contact with ‘work’ and explanations of how difficult it was to find time away, imply that ‘home’ work was a higher priority. Interestingly the term ‘work’ was only used for home working and not for exchange work. No teacher used the term ‘work’ for their exchange activities however teachers did seem to blur the boundaries between work and holiday.

‘I felt the need to keep in touch with work…. not on annual leave officially’ P 8

‘It felt like a holiday…had elements of a holiday, for example new people, environment, experiences, able to work on PhD’ P8

These findings may reflect of post-modern blurring of work and leisure. It has been suggested that ‘leisure has become penetrated by the norms and ideals of work’ (Harris, 2005) and that work has become penetrated by leisure. Rojek (1995) argues that work/leisure boundaries have broken down in late modernity. This may explain the feeling of being ‘on annual leave’ and the guilt as participants are aware of their enjoyment of the experience, resulting in the need to focus on home school activities, to assuage this guilt.

It is unclear whether the reduction of applications to take part in the teacher exchange programme during the third year of this study was due to a perceived lack of value for the programme or the exchange experience. The e questionnaire developed and sent to the whole school when this was noted, showed that the programme was still perceived to be of value and interest. It is worth noting that significant cultural and structural changes had occurred within the school during the study. Perhaps pertinently the facilitator of the exchange programme and the way the travel arrangements were organised, changed during the study. Year 1 exchanges were lead by a senior member of the international team, the following exchanges, by less senior staff with perhaps less ‘ownership’ of the internationalisation project. Staff also reported that help with travel arrangements significantly reduced stress and led to more positive perceptions of the whole experience. These changes may have inadvertently led to a reduction in its perceived organisational value, resulting in a drop in applicants.

Kinsella et al. (2008) highlight the importance of a ‘champion for the cause’, an exchange champion, arguing that a key enabler of internationalisation is the presence of someone who has a passion for and commitment to internationalisation. One explanation therefore for the fall in applicants for the exchange programme was a reduction in perceived value due to the lack of such a champion. Greatex-White (2008) argues that ‘curricula send powerful signals as to what is valued and what is not’. For internationalisation to be seen as central to health care education, and valued by academic staff, it must form a core component of any health care curriculum.

A further explanation for the fall in applicants to the programme during the study, may be the perception of an exchange to a European school as having less value than wider global travel. Travellers are reinventing the notion of ‘abroad’ and tourism is stretching its boundaries and distances (Cater, 1995) and constantly searching for the exotic, to extend their anthropological gaze, reflecting a desire to ‘get to know authentically’ (Harris, 2005). This may explain a reduced interested in Europe as an international destination for teachers.

Complex notions of value, of the teacher, their expertise and the exchange itself by both the home and host school are therefore central to the success of a teacher exchange programme.

Role identity 

The identified theme of role identity, encompasses professional role identity, professional and personal growth and internationalisation. It became apparent that the exchange not only challenged some aspects of role identity, but the personal and professional growth that resulted from the exchange was influenced by a range of stressors, enablers and antecedent factors. In fact, it could be argued that by reducing all stressors and rendering the strange familiar, reduces the learning and development that can occur from such an experience.

The data highlighted an ambiguity about the role identity of teachers undertaking the exchanges. Although the activity is clearly identified as a ‘Teacher Exchange’ it became apparent that not all the participants saw their prime identity as teachers. Two of the teachers appeared to see themselves primarily enacting an educational role, two primarily a clinical professional role and three joint clinical and educational roles. This is not surprising as roles can be seen as culturally constructed and when that culture is uncertain, for example in another country or institution, role identities can be threatened; the comfort of old roles and identities are often reverted to in times of uncertainty (Titchen and Binnie, 1992).

It was those teachers whose clinical backgrounds were midwifery and mental health, who most aligned themselves to their clinical professional identities.

‘My background is midwifery’ P 1

‘That's where they need the most help, um for me as a mental health nurse…..’ P8

This may be influenced by a strong professional role identity and clinical affiliation of midwives and mental health nurses as opposed to adult nurses. Many parts of Europe do not have a mental health branch of nursing or midwives as separate from obstetric nurses, which may result in greater pride in these clinical and professional roles. Alternatively this could be explained as a nostalgia for the ‘lost’ roles (Kumar, 1978) of clinical practice. Elsewhere (Law and Aranda, 2010) have argued that perceived threats to professional status and the changing roles of the nurse, results in a nostalgia and loss for a perceived golden age of stability and purity (Strangleman, 2007). The stress and role uncertainty inherent in a teacher exchange, may result in a similar nostalgia for a perceived era of certainly, linked to past clinical role.

It should be noted that half the participants did focus on teaching styles or reflecting on how to differently teach their subject. Nursing and midwifery are rooted in clinical practice and this area of interest is to be expected. However, it was found surprising that the focus of interest in practice was the clinical practice itself and not clinical education.

In common with the work on student exchange (Haloburdo and Thompson, 1998, Scholes and Moore, 2000, Grant and McKenna, 2003, Wimpenny et al., 2005, Lee, 2004, Law and Muir, 2006) there is evidence that personal and professional growth had occurred as a result of the teacher exchange programme, although this is mediated by previous experience, confidence and experience of international working. Six of the seven teachers in the year one case study, described professional development resulting from their discussions and experience.

Clinically focussed discussions were highly valued again by those teachers from mental health nursing and midwifery and tended to focus most overtly on this aspect, whilst those from an adult nursing background demonstrated a joint a clinical nursing and educational focus.

‘You know it really shifted my perspective in terms of midwifery’ P2

‘I was also surprised at how much it made me think about what we are doing here which I thought was really good’ P7

As the study progressed there was a more subdued response to professional development, possibly due to the range of international experience already accrued and reduced role challenge. The length of the exchange appears to be a factor in the overall experience. Most visits were for only one week and there was a sense in the data that the experience was incomplete, thus reducing the level of professional development achieved.

‘The transitory incomplete nature of it…..partly I'm left with a feeling of “so what” ’ P6.

‘Preparation for the teacher exchange would be useful’ P 11

Participants, desired greater preparation for the exchange and a more structured post exchange period, to make the most of their observations and turn them into real developmental opportunities. Teachers were aware that structured pre and post exchange sessions are provided to enhance student learning and it was thought that this would be useful for teaching staff as well.

Role identity and personal development 

As noted in the literature on student exchanges, (Ketefian and Redman, 1997, Scholes and Moore, 2000, Watt et al., 2002, Lee, 2004) it was the fact of taking part and managing the experience that often gave most personal satisfaction and development of role identity.

‘On a personal point of view, it did boost my confidence’ P4

Participants with previous international work experience demonstrated more muted personal development which focussed on affirmation, and reinforcement of their role identity rather than development.

‘It's affirmed my belief in my teaching practice, being happily controversial’ P6

Evidence of challenges to role identity and evidence of personal and professional development were weak in the year 2 and 3 case studies. Robbins, 1991, Tomlinson, 1994 argue that the impact of globalisation, technology, interaction and communication, blur traditional borderlands and boundaries, so that notions of place need to be re-thought. It could be argued that these teachers, who are comfortable with the shared professional and educational interests, in regular contact with home and work via the phone and email, and even encouraged, by our research process, to engage in e reflection, are not ‘abroad’. The teachers may have considered themselves at home or even, through the influence of technology in a ‘non-place (Augé, 1995), thus reducing the personal and professional development felt.

The borderlands can become even less distinct when teachers create their home world overseas. Some staff took favourite foods and bedding from home to render the strange familiar. Once familiar objects, and favourite foods are introduced, and all ‘stressors’ reduced, sense of place can completely disappear. Such blurring can even make the concept of internationalisation, especially within the European context as redundant. Interestingly, the financial support from the European Union to engage in this exchange activity, is predicated on the aim of harmonisation (Bologna Declaration, 1999). To view European countries as ‘home’, immediately changes the sense of ‘abroad’ and ‘differentness’.

Internationalisation of the curriculum is an aim of EU via The Treaty of the European Union (Maastricht, 1992) and the Bologna Declaration (1999). The exchange experience appeared to create a deeper understanding of and value for internationalisation.

‘It made me feel more European…we're all family now’ P6

‘It was very interesting…. Because I don't get involved in the international office over here so I have I have absolutely no idea what the international office [at home} is about’ P7

However internationalisation as a concept was weaker in the year 2 and 3 case studies. Teachers who had a history of engaging with the internationalisation of the curriculum may not have felt the need to overtly express it. Wihlborg (2004), whose study on teachers' understanding of internationalisation as an essential part of nursing education in Sweden, identifies that the teachers struggled to give concrete and explicit examples of internationalisation. She also identifies that the majority of internationalisation of educational content originates from the teachers unique experiences and is conveyed through story telling rather than through an explicit identification of process. This study did not research the impact of the teacher exchanges on classroom teaching, although there is significant anecdotal evidence that storytelling from the exchanges does occur in the classroom.

Challenges to and strengthening of the role identity of the teachers participating in the teacher exchange programme was therefore apparent in terms of professional role identity, professional and personal growth and internationalisation.

Conclusion and recommendations 

This longitudinal study of a School of Nursing and Midwifery's teacher exchange programme identified two key themes of value and role identity. It was found that the teacher exchange programme was valued by the participants, despite a fall in the numbers participating during the study. It was important that those undertaking a teacher exchange felt valued by the host school and that the activity had value (use) to the participant. The study highlighted some interesting aspects of the complex role identities of those taking part. Personal and professional development resulted from the exchange, although the strength and focus of this was mediated by the identified stressors and enablers, personality, experience and previous international work. It became apparent that for the school and staff to fully benefit from the teacher exchange programme, it must be well structured, offer support for learning and professional development and be championed by a committed leader.

One key recommendation for successful teacher exchanges, which have a real impact on the curriculum therefore, is to ensure that the activity is led by a member of staff who is committed to the notion of internationalisation. To ensure that maximum benefit is gained from short exchange visits , it is recommended that a structured preparation and post exchange programme be included in this aspect of internationalisation. Ideally this would be combined with additional time for scholarly activity to ensure that the learning and development that has taken place, is internalised and acted upon. It is also recommended that a protected period of reflection would facilitate making sense of experiences gained, and identify potential changes to teaching, educational processes and sharing knowledge through publication. This study also highlights many further research opportunities, for example the impact such experiences have on the curriculum, the role transition and role development of staff undertaking international work.

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Acknowledgements 

We would like to thank Professor Julie Scholes, Centre of Nursing and Midwifery Research, University of Brighton, for her guidance and support throughout this project.

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